COMMON GRAMMAR AND STYLE ERRORS
I. Sentence Fragments
A sentence missing an essential part (subject, verb, or object) is called a sentence fragment.
RULE: To correct a sentence fragment, rewrite or repunctuate the sentence to make it a complete sentence, or to join it to a complete sentence.
EX: Incorrect The new manager instituted several new procedures. Many of which are impractical.
Correct
The new manager instituted several new procedures, many of which are
impractical.
II. Run-on Sentences and Comma Splices
A run-on sentence, sometimes called a fused sentence, is two or more sentences without punctuation to separate them. A comma splice is two or more sentences “spliced together” to form one grammatically incorrect sentence.
RULE: To correct a run-on sentence or comma splice:
Use one of these methods:
· make two sentences,
· join the two independent clauses with a semicolon (if they are closely related),
· join the two clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction,
· subordinate one clause to the other.
EX: Incorrect The new manager instituted several new procedures some were impractical. (run-on)
Correct The new manager instituted several new procedures. Some were impractical.
The new manager instituted several new procedures; some were impractical.
The new manager instituted several new procedures, but some were impractical.
Although several new procedures were implemented, some were impractical.
III. Faulty Subject-Verb Agreement
RULE: The subject and verb must agree in number and person.
A. The subject of a sentence alone determines the number of the verb. Be careful not to mistake a word in a phrase or clause for the subject. Parenthetical expressions introduced by such words as “accompanied by,” “with,” “as well as” do not govern the verb.
EX: One of the cars needs a battery. (one is the subject)
Mr. Roberts, as well as his assistants, is working.
B. If an indefinite pronoun is the subject of a sentence, the verb must agree with it in number.
1. The indefinite pronouns listed below are always singular :
|
anybody |
each |
everyone |
anyone |
anything |
|
either |
everybody |
someone |
everything |
neither |
|
no one |
somebody |
another |
one |
nobody |
EX: Each of the tests is challenging.
Neither of your parents was disappointed.
2. The following indefinite pronouns are always plural:
|
several |
few |
both |
many |
|
3. The following indefinite pronouns may be singular or plural:
a. These pronouns are singular when they refer to a quantity. They are plural when they refer to a number.
Some of the money was stolen. (quantity)
Some of their answers were wrong. (number)
Most of the sugar is gone. (quantity)
Most of the survivors were dazed. (number)
All of the food was donated. (quantity)
All of the tools were expensive. (number)
b. “None” and “any” may be either singular or plural depending on whether the writer is referring to one thing or to several.
None of the stories was true. (not one)
None of the stories were true. (no stories)
Any of these careers is rewarding. (any one)
Any of these careers are rewarding. (any careers)
C. When a compound subject is joined by “or” or “nor,” the verb agrees with the closer noun or pronoun.
EX: Either the designer or the builders are in error.
Either the designers or the builder is in error.
D. A collective noun is singular when the group is acting as a single unit. A collective noun is plural when the individuals in the group are acting separately.
EX: The team was the winner of the play-off. (united action)
The team were voting for a captain. (separate action)
1. Periods of time, amounts of money, fractions, weights, and measurements are generally singular in meaning and require a singular verb.
EX: Two-thirds of the town’s housing has been renovated.
Approximately $850,000 of the total cost is for expenses.
E. A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number.
A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number.
EX: These are the researchers who are testing our products.
He is one of
those teachers who expects the best.
IV. Faulty Pronoun Usage
A pronoun can be meaningful only if it refers to a specific noun (its referent of antecedent), with which it must agree in gender and number.
A. When an indefinite pronoun is singular (and is used as the antecedent), the pronoun is also singular.
EX: WRONG None of the workers were satisfied with their wages. To avoid “his or her,” try to change to a plural form.
RIGHT (and less awkward than “his or her.”)
B. When a pronoun is used, it must refer to one clearly identified antecedent.
AMBIGUOUS John told Rich he was obsessed with his job.
CLEAR John told Rich, “I am obsessed with my job.”
C. Avoid using “this,” “that,” or “it” unless the pronoun refers to a specific antecedent.
VAGUE: As he drove away from his menial job, boring lifestyle, and damp apartment, he was happy to be leaving it behind.
CLEAR: As he drove away, he was happy to be leaving his menial job, boring lifestyle, and damp apartment behind.
VAGUE: Water boils at 212 degrees
fahrenheit and freezes at 32 degrees fahrenheit, which makes it usable as
coolant in
most parts of the country. Particularly to prevent the water from freezing,
antifreeze is required. Some manufacturers recommend using antifreeze on cars
with air conditioning because of the possibility of the heater core freezing.
D. The case of a pronoun—nominative, objective, or possessive—is determined by the role it plays in the sentence: as subject, as object, or an indicator of possession.
1. If the pronoun serves as the subject of a sentence, its case is nominative. (I, we, you, she, he, it, they, who.)
EX: Who broke the chair?
2. When a pronoun follows a version of the verb “to be” it further explains (complements) the subject, and thus its case is nominative.
EX: The chemist who perfected our new process is he.
3. If the pronoun serves as the
object of a verb or a preposition, its case is objective. (me, us, you, her,
him, it, them, whom)
EX: The employees gave her a parting gift.
To whom do you wish to speak?
4. If a pronoun indicates
possession, its case is possessive. (my, mine, our, ours, your, yours, his,
her, hers, its their, theirs, whose)
Common errors in pronoun case
WRONG: Whom is responsible for who?|
RIGHT: Who is responsible for whom? (nominative and objective)
WRONG: The debate was between Joe and I.
RIGHT: The debate was
between Joe and me. (objective)
V. Faulty Modification (adjectives and adverbs)
The word order (syntax) of a sentence
determines its effectiveness and meaning. Certain words or groups of words are
modified
by other words or groups of words. The underlined words below are
considered modifiers:
the foundation with the cracked wall
Opening the door, we entered quietly.
To succeed, one must work hard.
the man who came to dinner
the job that I recently accepted
A. Dangling Modifiers
When a modifying phrase has no proper subject to modify, it dangles.
EX: By planting different varieties of crops, the pests were unable to adapt.
1. To correct a dangling modifier, provide an explicit subject to the dangling clause or phrase.
WRONG: By planting different varieties of crops, the pests were unable to adapt.
RIGHT: By planting different varieties of crops, farmers prevented the pests from adapting.
B. Misplaced Modifiers
The order of adjectives and adverbs in a sentence is as important as the order of modifying phrases and clauses. Changing word order affects the meaning of a sentence.
EX: I often remind myself of the need to balance my checkbook.
I remind myself of the need to balance my checkbook often.
1. Be sure that modifiers and the words they modify follow a word order that reflects your meaning. (In most cases try to place the modifier next to the word it modifies.)
Examples of misplaced modifiers and corrected versions:
VAGUE: John ordered his materials from an out-of-state lumber mill which cost only $850.00.
CORRECTED: John ordered his materials, which cost only $850.00, from an out-of-state lumber mill.
VAGUE: He read a report on the use of nonchemical pesticides in our conference room.
CORRECTED: In our conference room, he read a report on the use of nonchemical pesticides.
VI. Faulty use of Active and Passive Voices
A. Definition: A verb is the active voice when it expresses an action performed by its subject. A verb is in the passive voice when it expresses an action performed upon its subject or when the subject is the result of the action. In the passive voice the main verb is a past participle and the tense is expressed by an appropriate form of “be.”
ACTIVE: Smith drove the launch vehicle.
PASSIVE: The launch vehicle was driven by Smith.
ACTIVE: Many physicists support the big bang theory.
PASSIVE: The big bang theory is supported by many physicists.
B. Use of Active/Passive
1. In most cases, the active voice is preferable to the passive voice. The active voice sentence more clearly emphasizes the actor.
2. Use the active (imperative) voice when giving instructions
EX: Compile the data and distribute it immediately.
(active)
3. Use the passive voice when the actor is clear from the context.
EX: Students are required to take both writing courses.
4. Use the passive voice when the actor is unknown.
EX: The comet was first referred to in an ancient Egyptian text.
5. Use the passive voice when the actor is unimportant.
EX: The documents were hand-delivered this morning.
6. Use the passive voice when a reference to the actor is embarrassing, dangerous, or in some way inappropriate.
EX: Incorrect data were recorded for the flow rate.
7. Recognize how the two voices differ and use them appropriately.
AWKWARD: He lifted the cage door, and a hungry mouse was seen.
BETTER: He lifted the cage door and saw a hungry mouse.
AWKWARD: The new catalyst produced good-quality foam, and a flatter mold was caused by the new chute-opening size.
BETTER: The new catalyst produced goo-quality foam, and the new chute-opening size resulted in a flatter mold
VII. Sentence Shifts
Shifts in point of view, voice, tense, or mood will damage coherence. If you begin a sentence or paragraph with one subject (person), voice, or mood, don’t shift courses. Also, don’t shift tenses without good reason.
Common shifts in sentences
WRONG: When you finish such a great book, one will have a sense of achievement. (shift in person)
One should sift the flour before they make the pie. (shift in number)
CORRECT: When you finish such a great book, you will have a sense of achievement.
One should sift the flour before one makes the pie.
WRONG: He delivered the plans for the apartment complex, and the building site was also inspected by him. (shift in voice)
CORRECT: He delivered the plans for the apartment complex and also inspected the building site.
WRONG: She delivered the blueprints, inspected the foundation, wrote her report, and had taken the afternoon off. (tense shift)
CORRECT: She delivered the blueprints, inspected the foundation, wrote her report, and took the afternoon off.
WRONG: Unscrew the valve and then steel wool should be used to clean the rubber ring. (shift in mood)
CORRECT: Unscrew the valve and use steel wool to clean the rubber
ring.
VIII. Faulty Parallelism
A. Definition: A sentence is parallel if its coordinate elements are expressed in the same grammatical form: that is, all its clauses are either passive or active, all verbs are either infinitives or participles, and so forth. By sustaining a recognizable pattern for the reader, parallelism makes the sentence easier to follow.
B. Conventions
1. Make sure that verbs, voice, and mood are parallel among coordinate elements.
NONPARALLEL: Our present system is costing us profits and reduces our productivity. (nonparallel verbs)
PARALLEL: Our present system is costing us profits and reducing our productivity.
NONPARALLEL: The dignitaries watched the launch, and the crew was applauded. (nonparallel voice)
PARALLEL: The dignitaries watched the launch, and applauded the crew.
NONPARALLEL: The typist should follow the printed directions; do not change the originator’s work. (mood)
PARALLEL: The typist should follow the printed directions and not change the originator’s work.
2. Make elements parallel when using “either . . . or,” “neither . . . nor,” and “not only . . . but also.”
NONPARALLEL: The new refrigerant not only decreases energy costs but also spoilage losses.
PARALLEL: The new refrigerant decreases not only energy costs but also spoilage losses.
3. Make sure that parallel items in a series do not overlap, thus changing or confusing the meaning of the sentence.
CONFUSING: The speakers will include partners of law firms, businessmen, and civic leaders.
CLEAR: The speakers will include businessmen, civic leaders, and partners of law firms.
4. Maintain parallelism among sentences in paragraph. When you establish a pattern in a paragraph, follow it through.
EX: Correlating the two results in a three-part procedure.
First, . . . . . . . . . . Second, . . . . . . . . . . Third, . . . . . . . . . .
5. Make sure the items in a list are presented in a parallel structure.
NONPARALLEL: Here is the schedule we plan to follow:
a. construction of the preliminary proposal
b. do library research
c. interview with the Bemco vice-president
d. first draft
e. revision of the first draft
f. after we get your approval, typing of the final draft.
PARALLEL: Here is the schedule we plan to follow:
a. write the preliminary proposal
b. do library research
c. interview the Bemco vice-president
d. write the first draft
e. revise the rough draft
f. type the final draft, after we receive your approval
IX. Wordiness
Wordy phrases weaken professional writing by making it unnecessarily long and complex, often leading to confusion and a required second or third reading. Avoid wordy phrases, cliches, pompous words and complex strings of prepositional phrases and subordinate clauses in your writing.
A. Wordy Phrases
WORDY: I am of the opinion that, in regard to profit achievement, the statistics pertaining to this month will appear to indicate an upward tendency.
CONCISE: I think this month’s statistics will show an increase in profits.
REDUNDANT: “We initially began our investigative analysis with a sample that was spherical in shape and heavy in weight.
BETTER: We began our analysis with a heavy, spherical sample.
COMPLEX: In a smoke-filled room, teary eyes and runny noses occur, and auditory discrimination and visual perception are altered, which is irritating but not associated with any serious disease, except for people with heart and lung diseases who are threatened with major problems from smoke.
REVISED: A smoke filled room does not only cause teary eyes and runny noses. The smoke also can alter auditory and visual perception. Although the smoke itself does not produce disease, it does pose a threat to people with heart and lung ailments.
B. Cliches
TRITE: Afraid that we were between a rock and a hard place, we decided to throw caution to the winds with a grandstand play that would catch our competition with its pants down.
PLAIN: Afraid that we were in a hopeless situation, we decided on a risky and aggressive move that would surprise our competition.
C. Pompous Words
POMPOUS: It is the belief of the accounting department that the predicament was precipitated by a computational inaccuracy.
PLAIN: The accounting department thinks a math error caused the problem.
D. Overuse of Prepositional Phrases
WEAK: Th use of this method would eliminate the problem of motor damage.
STRONG: This method would eliminate the problem of motor damage.
WEAK: The presence of a six-membered lactone ring was detected.
STRONG: A six-membered lactone ring was detected.
WEAK: Each preparation of the solution is done twice.
STRONG: Each solution is prepared twice.
WEAK: An investigation of all possible alternatives was undertaken.