Reading Notes and Questions for the Reformation
 

The Reformation is usually dated as beginning in 1517 when Martin Luther tacked up his “95 Theses” on the door to the castle church at Wittenberg. Over the course of the next 50 years or so a series of charismatic religious leaders and thinkers fired the enthusiasm of Christians throughout Europe and led them away from the institutional structures of the Roman Catholic Church. For the most part these are known as “Protestant” movements –so named because in 1529 the Lutheran members of the Diet of Speyer “protested” their condemnation by that body. They were referred to as the “protesting Estates” and eventually everyone who left the Church was referred to as a “Protestant.” The formation of these new religious denominations marked the beginning of a new series of very brutal and unforgiving wars and conflicts that raged across Europe (mostly Northern) for the next several centuries –and fundamentally altered the political, intellectual, and cultural climate of the time.

It is, perhaps, too much to attempt to causally link the Reformation to intellectual and cultural developments of the Renaissance (particularly the Northern Renaissance). Certainly it is the case that the Church had been criticized and that reform movements had emerged within the Church throughout its history. However, it is interesting to note that Luther was a member (in some sense) of the intellectual circle of the Northern Humanists (More, Erasmus, Giles, et. al.) and remained in touch with these thinkers until the publication of “On Christian Liberty.” In any case, it is possible to speculate that certain Renaissance developments had an impact on the Reformation. First, the increasing movement away from and disparagement of Scholastic Theology and the authority of Church Schools in the determination of proper worship and dogma and, second, the developments in philology and printing which, coupled with an increase in literacy, opened the Bible to the study of lay members of the Church and subjected the Bible to critical examination (e.g. Erasmus’ careful analytical edition of the New Testament) opens up a space for new interpretation of Christian literature and provides a new audience for that interpretation. Third, a growing dissatisfaction with specific Church institutions; in particular, monasteries and indulgences (though this differed in particulars region from region) coupled with these new interpretations fanned the flames of discontent. Fourth, during this period the Popes and Rome in general appeared more and more as a secular power interfering not only in the lives of everyday people in Italy, but also (through the Holy Roman Empire) in the lives of Germans, which again, made certain regions fertile ground for rebellion. In any case, these are just some possible connections between developments during the Renaissance and the beginning of the Reformation.

Martin Luther & John Calvin

Readings: For Luther, read the whole of the 95 Theses (not too long, though potentially rather boring) and “On Christian Liberty” (both found at: http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/wittenberg-luther.html#sw-95). For “Concerning Christian Liberty” (1520) focus primarily on Part II and Part III where Luther is laying out his main arguments. Part I is an interesting letter to the Pope and is suggestive concerning attitudes of Catholics outside of Italy to the Papacy. One last point: it is the publication of this tract which basically breaks off the previously cordially relations between Erasmus and Luther. Erasmus, as a humanist, makes the basic freedom of the human will central to his understanding of the human condition. Luther found this intolerable, and this letter is in many ways a response to Erasmus. After its publication, according to legend, the two never spoke again.

Questions: I will keep these questions rather general. Suffice it to say that you should have a working knowledge of these works –understand the content and the arguments.

1. While reading the 95 Theses make sure you are able to identify the primary points of conflict between Luther and the Church.
2. Consider carefully the kind of life Luther thought was appropriate for Christians –and the manner in which this life is characterized.
3. Compare what Luther is saying about the Church here to the way in which More offers criticisms of the Church in Utopia and to Calvin.
4. Consider as well the manner in which the Pope figures in here –how is this office referenced? What does Luther’s position towards this office suggest?
5. In “On Christian Liberty” concentrate you analysis primarily on Luther’s conception of the free-will and what he means by liberty.
6. What is the argument –such as it is—that Luther uses to prove his point? What do you think of this conception of freedom (liberty)?
7. How might someone like Mirandola respond to this conception? How does it change the basic understanding of the human condition?
8. How does this understanding of liberty change our conception of the proper relation of human to divine?
9. How does any of this challenge your own conception of God or the Divine or the relation of humanity to the divine?

John Milton

Milton’s Paradise Lost is going to be a major focus of our work for understanding both the Reformation and the Baroque era. That is, we are going to use Paradise Lost as an entry way for talking about the philosophical and cultural questions that are raised during this period –despite the fact that Milton is writing about a century or so later. Of course, often times the important developments of a particular period can only be adequately reflected upon after they have happened (“the owl of Minerva takes flight at dusk” as Hegel says). So, Milton offers an interesting vantage point.

Here are some general questions.

1. Of course, you should know the basic content of the story –what is happening, who is involved, etc. Milton’s prose may be difficult, and his references obscure, but the website has a useful reference section and you should do whatever outside research you think is necessary.
2. Pay special attention to the character of Satan. Try to find ways to articulate what his essential character traits are –are they and why are they reprehensible? Consider: what makes Satan, well, Satan?
3. Satan, in his conversation with other “fallen angels” in particular, makes a number of potentially interesting arguments concerning the proper response to power –who should have it, and what having it should mean. What do you make of these arguments?
4. Is God a tyrant? Is it the case that there is no way to legitimate God’s authority over someone like Satan? What do you make of Satan’s arguments against God’s power?
5. How does this picture of Satan, and his relation to God, challenge your own conceptions, or your own understanding of who/what/how God is in relation to us (as his creations –hence, creatures)?
6. Also, note the many references to the ancient mythological gods here and how these gods are cast –what do you make of this?

Author: Thomas Bowen
Oakton Community College